John Wyclif has a quadruple appeal for me. My wife Jean is a very distant relative of his (her mother has Wycliffe as a middle name). Her father studied, as a good evangelical, at Wycliffe Hall in Oxford. And as a sometime mediaevalist I encountered his writings and the world of Oxford in the fourteenth century through turning the very pages of the manuscripts they wrote. And he was brought up in Yorkshire before going to Oxford. He was born around 1330 and after a high-profile career at Oxford was deprived of his posts because of his radical opinions – as much a contrarian in matters ecclesiastical as a protestant in matters of faith. It was, however, his dubious teaching on the eucharist that took him across the line and led to formal condemnation, though he continued to serve as a parish priest at Lutterworth where he died whilst at Mass in 1384. He is particularly remembered for his support of the Scriptures in English (not quite as controversial in his time as it became later), and his work fed into the ‘Wycliffite’ Bibles. Purvey’s prologue to the second of these has this particularly memorable chapter:
Below is the Middle English text of chapter 15 of Purvey’s Prologue to the second ‘Wycliffe’ Bible, asin Forshall and Madden’s edition of 1850 (courtesy of http://www.bible-researcher.com/wyclif2.html). The Middle-English Yogh character (indicating a gutteral "y" sound) is represented here by a "3."
CAP. XV.
Hou euery man schulde kunne and kepe the scripture, and hooly writ is the scripture of puplis, as Jerom seith.
For as myche as Crist seith that the gospel shal be prechid in al the world, and Dauith seith of the postlis and her preching, "the soun of hem 3ede out into ech lond, and the wordis of hem 3eden out into the endis of the world," and eft Dauith seith, "the Lord schal telle in the scripturis of puplis, and of these princis that weren in it," that is, in holi chirche, and as Jerom seith on that vers, "hooly writ is the scripture of puplis, for it is maad, that alle puples schulden knowe it," and the princis of the chirche, that weren therinne, ben the postlis, that hadden autorite to writen hooly writ, for bi that same that the postlis writiden her scripturis bi autorite, and confermynge of the Hooly Goost, it is hooly scripture, and feith of cristen men, and this dignite hath noo man aftir hem, be he neuere so hooly, neuer so kunnynge, as Jerom witnessith on that vers. Also Crist seith of the Jewis that crieden Osanna to him in the temple, that thou3 thei weren stille stoonis schulen crie, and bi stoonis he vndirstondith hethen men, that worshipiden stoonis for her goddis. And we Englische men ben comen of hethen men, therfore we ben vndirstonden bi thes stonis, that schulden crie hooly writ, and as Jewis, interpretid knowlechinge, singnefien clerkis, that schulden knouleche to God, bi repentaunce of synnes, and bi vois of Goddis heriyng, so oure lewide men, suynge the corner ston Crist, mowen be singnefied bi stonis, that ben harde and abydinge in the foundement; for thou3 couetouse clerkis ben woode by simonie, eresie, and manye othere synnes, and dispisen and stoppen holi writ, as myche as thei moun, 3it the lewid puple crieth aftir holi writ, to kunne it, and kepe it, with greet cost and peril of here lif. For these resons and othere, with comune charite to saue alle men in oure rewme, whiche God wole haue sauid, a symple creature hath translatid the bible out of Latyn into English. First, this symple creature hadde myche trauaile, with diuerse felawis and helperis, to gedere manie elde biblis, and othere doctouris, and comune glosis, and to make oo Latyn bible sumdel trewe; and thanne to studie it of the newe, the text with the glose, and othere doctouris, as he mi3te gete, and speciali Lire on the elde testament, that helpide ful myche in this werk; the thridde tyme to counseile with elde gramariens, and elde dyuynis, of harde wordis, and harde sentencis, hou tho mi3ten best be vndurstonden and translatid; the iiij. tyme to translate as cleerli as he coude to the sentence, and to haue manie gode felawis and kunnynge at the correcting of the translacioun. First it is to knowe, that the best translating is out of Latyn into English, to translate aftir the sentence, and not oneli aftir the wordis, so that the sentence be as opin, either openere, in English as in Latyn, and go not fer fro the lettre; and if the lettre mai not be suid in the translating, let the sentence euere be hool and open, for the wordis owen to serue to the entent and sentence, and ellis the wordis ben superflu either false. In translating into English, manie resolucions moun make the sentence open, as an ablatif case absolute may be resoluid into these thre wordis, with couenable verbe, the while, for, if, as gramariens seyn; as thus, the maistir redinge, I stonde, mai be resoluid thus, while the maistir redith, I stonde, either if the maistir redith, etc. either for the maistir, etc.; and sumtyme it wolde acorde wel with the sentence to be resoluid into whanne, either into aftirward, thus, whanne the maistir red, I stood, either aftir the maistir red, I stood; and sumtyme it mai wel be resoluid into a verbe of the same tens, as othere ben in the same resoun, and into this word et, that is, and in English, as thus, arescentibus hominibus præ timore, that is, and men shulen wexe drie for drede. Also a participle of a present tens, either preterit, of actif vois, eithir passif, mai be resoluid into a verbe of the same tens, and a coniunccioun copulatif, as thus, dicens, that is, seiynge, mai be resoluid thus, and seith, eithir that seith; and this wole, in manie placis, make the sentence open, where to Englisshe it aftir the word, wolde be derk and douteful. Also a relatif, which mai be resoluid into his antecedent with a coniunccioun copulatif, as thus, which renneth, and he renneth. Also whanne oo word is oonis set in a reesoun, it mai be set forth as ofte as it is vndurstonden, either as ofte as reesoun and nede axen; and this word autem, either vero, mai stonde for forsothe, either for but, and thus I vse comounli; aud sumtyme it mai stonde for and, as elde gramariens seyn. Also whanne ri3tful construccioun is lettid bi relacion, I resolue it openli, thus, where this reesoun, Dominum formidabunt adversarij ejus, shulde be Englisshid thus bi the lettre, the Lord hise aduersaries shulen drede, I Englishe it thus bi resolucioun, the aduersaries of the Lord shulen drede him; and so of othere resons that ben like. At the bigynnyng I purposide, with Goddis helpe, to make the sentence as trewe and open in English as it is in Latyn, either more trewe and more open than it is in Latyn; and I preie, for charite and for comoun profyt of cristene soulis, that if ony wiys man fynde ony defaute of the truthe of translacioun, let him sette in the trewe sentence and opin of holi writ, but loke that he examyne truli his Latyn bible, for no doute he shal fynde ful manye biblis in Latyn ful false, if he loke manie, nameli newe; and the comune Latyn biblis han more nede to be correctid, as manie as I haue seen in my lif, than hath the English bible late translatid; and where the Ebru, bi witnesse of Jerom, of Lire, and othere expositouris discordith fro oure Latyn biblis, I haue set in the margyn, bi maner of a glose, what the Ebru hath, and hou it is vndurstondun in sum place; and I dide this most in the Sauter, that of alle oure bokis discordith most fro Ebru; for the chirche redith not the Sauter bi the laste translacioun of Jerom out of Ebru into Latyn, but another translacioun of othere men, that hadden myche lasse kunnyng and holynesse than Jerom hadde; and in ful fewe bokis the chirche redith the translacioun of Jerom, as it mai be preuid bi the propre origynals of Jerom, whiche he gloside. And where I haue translatid as opinli or opinliere in English as in Latyn, late wise men deme, that knowen wel bothe langagis, and knowen wel the sentence of holi scripture. And wher I haue do thus, or nay, ne doute, thei that kunne wel the sentence of holi writ and English togidere, and wolen trauaile, with Goddis grace, theraboute, moun make the bible as trewe and as opin, 3ea, and opinliere in English than it is in Latyn. And no doute to a symple man, with Goddis grace and greet trauail, men mi3ten expoune myche openliere and shortliere the bible in English, than the elde greete doctouris han expounid it in Latyn, and myche sharpliere and groundliere than manie late postillatouris, eithir expositouris, han don. But God, of his grete merci, 3eue to vs grace to lyue wel, and to seie the truthe in couenable manere, and acceptable to God and his puple, and to spille not oure tyme, be it short be it long at Goddis ordynaunce. But summe, that semen wise and holi, seyn thus, if men now weren as holi as Jerom was, thei mi3ten translate out of Latyn into English, as he dide out of Ebru and out of Greek into Latyn, and ellis thei shulden not translate now, as hem thinkith, for defaute of holynesse and of kunnyng. Thou3 this replicacioun seme colourable, it hath no good ground, neither resoun, neithir charite, for whi this replicacioun is more a3ens seynt Jerom, and a3ens the firste lxx. translatouris, and a3ens holi chirche, than a3ens symple men, that translaten now into English; for seynt Jerom was not so holi as the apostlis and euangelistis, whos bokis he translatide into Latyn, neither he hadde so hi3e 3iftis of the Holi Gost as thei hadden; and myche more the lxx. translatouris weren not so holi as Moises and the profetis, and speciali Dauith, neither thei hadden so greete 3iftis of God, as Moises and the prophetis hadden. Ferthermore holi chirche appreueth, not oneli the trewe translacioun of meene cristene men, stidefast in cristene feith, but also of open eretikis, that diden awei manie mysteries of Jhesu Crist bi gileful translacioun, as Jerom witnessith in oo prolog on Job, and in the prolog of Daniel. Myche more late the chirche of Engelond appreue the trewe and hool translacioun of symple men, that wolden for no good in erthe, bi here witing and power, putte awei the leste truthe, 3ea, the leste lettre, either title, of holi writ, that berith substaunce, either charge. And dispute thei not of the holynesse of men now lyuynge in this deadli lif, for thei kunnen not theron, and it is reseruid oneli to Goddis doom. If thei knowen ony notable defaute bi the translatouris, either helpis of hem, lete hem blame the defaute bi charite and merci, and lete hem neuere dampne a thing that mai be don lefulli bi Goddis lawe, as weeryng of a good cloth for a tyme, either riding on an hors for a greet iourney, whanne thei witen not wherfore it is don; for suche thingis moun be don of symple men, with as greet charite and vertu, as summe, that holden hem greete and wise, kunnen ride in a gilt sadil, either vse cuyssyns and beddis and clothis of gold and of silk, with othere vanitees of the world. God graunte pite, merci, and charite, and loue of comoun profyt, and putte awei such foli domis, that ben a3ens resoun and charite. 3it worldli clerkis axen gretli what spiryt makith idiotis hardi to translate now the bible into English, sithen the foure greete doctouris dursten neuere do this? This replicacioun is so lewid, that it nedith noon answer, no but stillnesse, eithir curteys scorn; for these greete doctouris weren noon English men, neither thei weren conuersaunt among English men, neithir in caas thei kouden the langage of English, but thei ceessiden neuere til thei hadden holi writ in here modir tunge, of here owne puple. For Jerom, that was a Latyn man of birthe, translatide the bible, bothe out of Ebru and out of Greek, into Latyn, and expounide ful myche therto; and Austyn, and manie mo Latyns expouniden the bible, for manie partis, in Latyn, to Latyn men, among whiche thei dwelliden, and Latyn was a comoun langage to here puple aboute Rome, and bi3ondis, and on this half, as Englishe is comoun langage to oure puple, and 3it this day the comoun puple in Italie spekith Latyn corrupt, as trewe men seyn, that han ben in Italie; and the noumbre of translatouris out of Greek into Latyn passith mannis knowing, as Austyn witnessith in the ij. book of Cristene Teching, and seith thus, "the translatouris out of Ebru into Greek moun be noumbrid, but Latyn translatouris, either thei that translatiden into Latyn, moun not be noumbrid in ony manere." For in the firste tymes of feith, ech man, as a Greek book came to him, and he semyde to him silf to haue sum kunnyng of Greek and of Latyn, was hardi to translate; and this thing helpide more than lettide vndurstonding, if rederis ben not necligent, forwhi the biholding of manie bokis hath shewid ofte, eithir declarid, summe derkere sentencis. This seith Austyn there. Therfore Grosted seith, that it was Goddis wille, that diuerse men translatiden, and that diuerse translacions be in the chirche, for where oon seide derkli, oon either mo seiden openli. Lord God! sithen at the bigynnyng of feith so manie men translatiden into Latyn, and to greet profyt of Latyn men, lat oo symple creature of God translate into English, for profyt of English men; for if worldli clerkis loken wel here croniclis and bokis, thei shulden fynde, that Bede translatide the bible, and expounide myche in Saxon, that was English, either comoun langage of this lond, in his tyme; and not oneli Bede, but also king Alured, that foundide Oxenford, translatide in hise laste daies the bigynning of the Sauter into Saxon, and wolde more, if he hadde lyued lengere. Also Frenshe men, Beemers, and Britons han the bible, and othere bokis of deuocioun and of exposicioun, translatid in here modir langage; whi shulden not English men haue the same in here modir langage, I can not wite, no but for falsnesse and necgligence of clerkis, either for oure puple is not worthi to haue so greet grace and 3ifte of God, in peyne of here olde synnes. God for his merci amende these euele causis, and make oure puple to haue, and kunne, and kepe truli holi writ, to lijf and deth! But in translating of wordis equiuok, that is, that hath manie significacions vndur oo lettre, mai li3tli be pereil, for Austyn seith in the ij. book of Cristene Teching, that if equiuok wordis be not translatid into the sense, either vndurstonding, of the autour, it is errour; as in that place of the Salme, the feet of hem ben swifte to shede out blood, the Greek word is equiuok to sharp and swift, and he that translatide sharpe feet, erride, and a book that hath sharpe feet, is fals, and mut be amendid; as that sentence vnkynde 3onge trees shulen not 3eue depe rootis, owith to be thus, plauntingis of auoutrie shulen not 3eue depe rootis. Austyn seith this there. Therfore a translatour hath greet nede to studie wel the sentence, both bifore and aftir, and loke that suche equiuok wordis acorde with the sentence, and he hath nede to lyue a clene lif, and be ful deuout in preiers, and haue not his wit ocupied about worldli thingis, that the Holi Spiryt, autour of wisdom, and kunnyng, and truthe, dresse him in his werk, and suffre him not for to erre. Also this word ex signifieth sumtyme of, and sumtyme it signifieth bi, as Jerom seith; and this word enim signifieth comynli forsothe, and, as Jerom seith, it signifieth cause thus, forwhi; and this word secundum is taken for aftir, as manie men seyn, and comynli, but it signifieth wel bi, eithir vp, thus bi 3oure word, either vp 3oure word. Manie such aduerbis, coniuncciouns, and preposiciouns ben set ofte oon for another, and at fre chois of autouris sumtyme; and now tho shulen be taken as it acordith best to the sentence. Bi this maner, with good lyuyng and greet trauel, men moun come to trewe and cleer translating, and trewe vndurstonding of holi writ, seme it neuere so hard at the bigynnyng. God graunte to us alle grace to kunne wel, and kepe wel holi writ, and suffre ioiefulli sum peyne for it at the laste! Amen.
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